Daniel E. Martin, Ph.D.

Mentors expected outcomes of mentoring protégés based on protégé race and mentors’ level of Social Dominance Orientation (SDO) were established. Study 1: To better understand the structure of the newly created Mentorship Expectations Measure (MEM), (and to take the first step toward establishing a model) we conducted an exploratory factor analysis, using principle axis factoring procedure for extraction with Direct Oblimin rotation. The factor analysis yielded four viable factors. Study 2:… Show more

Mentors expected outcomes of mentoring protégés based on protégé race and mentors’ level of Social Dominance Orientation (SDO) were established. Study 1: To better understand the structure of the newly created Mentorship Expectations Measure (MEM), (and to take the first step toward establishing a model) we conducted an exploratory factor analysis, using principle axis factoring procedure for extraction with Direct Oblimin rotation. The factor analysis yielded four viable factors. Study 2: Participant-mentors estimated expected mentor outcome rewards from mentoring a Black or White protégé. No interactions were established, but SDO was a significant predictor of lessened expectations across several elements of the mentorship. This suggests that high levels of SDO in workplace hierarchies manifest poor expectations toward mentorship outcomes no matter the race/ethnicity or disciplinary back ground of the mentor. The development of the Mentorship Expectation Measure reflects a step forward in the psychometric matching of mentors with proteges. We recommend utilizing the MEM to evaluate mentors before establishing a relationship and making sure that the relationship is based on clear expectations, knowledge and balanced interpersonal relationships.1st, the MEM can facilitate the matching of mentors and protégés’. 2nd, researchers (Klauss, 1981; Kram, 1985) have pointed out that formal mentorship relationships may suffer due to the lack of initiative and commitment which the MEM clarifies. 3rd, the MEM can be used to examine and existing mentorship relations. 4th, established use of the MEM or mentorship assessment would signal a “culture of mentoring, with organizations broadcasting the seriousness with which they take mentorship. Finally, we establish the impact of SDO on mixed race mentorships. Show less

Business students appear predisposed to select disciplines consistent with pre-existing worldviews. These disciplines (e.g. economics) then further reinforce the worldviews which may not always be adaptive. For example, high levels of Social Dominance Orientation (SDO) is a trait often found in business school students (Sidanius, Pratto, Martin, Stallworth, 1991). SDO is a competitive and hierarchical worldview and belief-system that ascribes people to higher or lower social rankings. While… Show more

Business students appear predisposed to select disciplines consistent with pre-existing worldviews. These disciplines (e.g. economics) then further reinforce the worldviews which may not always be adaptive. For example, high levels of Social Dominance Orientation (SDO) is a trait often found in business school students (Sidanius, Pratto, Martin, Stallworth, 1991). SDO is a competitive and hierarchical worldview and belief-system that ascribes people to higher or lower social rankings. While research suggests that high levels of SDO may be linked to lower levels of empathy, research has not established the potential relationship between another related adaptive trait in the workplace, compassion. Compassion facilitates workplace performance by lowering levels of litigation, easing stress, and facilitating cooperation. Accordingly, the following study aimed to examine the relationship between SDO and compassion while hypothesizing Economic Systems Justification would mediate this relationship. Because of the importance of compassion in the workplace, the prevalence of SDO in the business academic community (Sidanius et al., 1991) and the topicality of Economic Systems Justification, we conducted our study with business school students. Results confirmed all but one hypothesis. Show less

A few years back, I was having a conversation with a brilliant Stanford student about crime maps. He suggested that a really cool use of mapping technology would be to map compassion. I thought to myself, that is a crazy idea, how would we do that? I shrugged it off and tried not to think about this issue, but it became something of a puzzle that I want to solve. How could this be done? Who would map compassion? Compassion is complex and can manifest itself in myriad ways, and most folks are… Show more

A few years back, I was having a conversation with a brilliant Stanford student about crime maps. He suggested that a really cool use of mapping technology would be to map compassion. I thought to myself, that is a crazy idea, how would we do that? I shrugged it off and tried not to think about this issue, but it became something of a puzzle that I want to solve. How could this be done? Who would map compassion? Compassion is complex and can manifest itself in myriad ways, and most folks are not familiar with the technical definition of compassion as 1) noticing suffering, 2) feeling empathy and 3) taking action to ameliorate the suffering which would cue folks to see it in actual behavior. Show less

How many employees are scared at work? Is it fear of interacting with your boss, the new guy who may replace you, or dreading being laid off as a wonderfully nice but economically redundant employee? There are plenty of daily workplace interpersonal interactions that contribute to stress, the largest area of workers compensation claims, but an area that is not considered frequently in regards to stress is the interaction between recruitment and candidates. While workplace stress has become… Show more

How many employees are scared at work? Is it fear of interacting with your boss, the new guy who may replace you, or dreading being laid off as a wonderfully nice but economically redundant employee? There are plenty of daily workplace interpersonal interactions that contribute to stress, the largest area of workers compensation claims, but an area that is not considered frequently in regards to stress is the interaction between recruitment and candidates. While workplace stress has become endemic, it is even easier to see how stress and fear might manifest themselves in job seekers given the high-stakes nature of pre-employment testing. With rent, mortgage, family support, and food on the table at stake, it is easy to become nervous and fearful of loss as the days tick by. Show less

A few years ago, I had an interesting interaction with a colleague. She described the lay of the academic terrain in the following manner: "Asian students are more likely to plagiarize than White students." When asked why, my colleague explained that this was a basic truism of academia, based on her many years of experience.

This was an issue that lent itself to empirical analysis. For several years, high schools, colleges, and universities have been using software that enables faculty… Show more

A few years ago, I had an interesting interaction with a colleague. She described the lay of the academic terrain in the following manner: "Asian students are more likely to plagiarize than White students." When asked why, my colleague explained that this was a basic truism of academia, based on her many years of experience.

This was an issue that lent itself to empirical analysis. For several years, high schools, colleges, and universities have been using software that enables faculty to establish the proportion of papers that have been turned in by then copied from databases previous papers and the Internet. Accordingly, I asked my students to submit work through the system my university provides, set what I would call plagiarism to about 30 consecutive words in a row without citation (zounds!). I found in fact there was no statistically significant difference between my Asian and Caucasian students (though at 62 percent of the class plagiarizing, the majority was within the realm of an F!). Show less

The Bank CEO Who Listened

David Brooks recently shared a conversation with a bank CEO. Economists found downside risks to continuing the bank's presence in Italy. The CEO knew staying there would be unprofitable in the short term but didn't want to be a "fair weather friend" and so remained in Italy. The CEO knew that banking is driven by trust, a goodwill asset controlled by customer emotions, not bankers. Research suggests positive emotions (gratitude and happiness) increase trust, and… Show more

The Bank CEO Who Listened

David Brooks recently shared a conversation with a bank CEO. Economists found downside risks to continuing the bank's presence in Italy. The CEO knew staying there would be unprofitable in the short term but didn't want to be a "fair weather friend" and so remained in Italy. The CEO knew that banking is driven by trust, a goodwill asset controlled by customer emotions, not bankers. Research suggests positive emotions (gratitude and happiness) increase trust, and negative emotions (anger, betrayal) decrease trust. Show less

Individual differences have been shown to impact whistle blowing (Miceli & Near, 1988; Mesmer-Magnus & Viswesvaran, 2005; Brinker, Dozier & Miceli, 1985). This study empirically examines previously unexplored effects on whistle blowing of a specific set of individual differences variables. These variables are religiosity, spirituality, integrity, and preference for social hierarchies. In addition, in that contextual variables can be expected to modify the impact of individual differences, we… Show more

Individual differences have been shown to impact whistle blowing (Miceli & Near, 1988; Mesmer-Magnus & Viswesvaran, 2005; Brinker, Dozier & Miceli, 1985). This study empirically examines previously unexplored effects on whistle blowing of a specific set of individual differences variables. These variables are religiosity, spirituality, integrity, and preference for social hierarchies. In addition, in that contextual variables can be expected to modify the impact of individual differences, we test the effects of our target independent variables in alternate organizational contexts (both academic and accounting). Analyses found weak positive relationships between whistle blowing and spirituality in an accounting scenario, with no relationship existing between religiosity and likelihood of whistle blowing in academic setting. Stronger positive relationships emerged between integrity and whistle blowing in both scenarios, with preference for maintenance of social hierarchies having a positive relationship with the accounting scenario being established. Considerations for future research and applications are offered. Show less

Spirituality provides descriptions that represent relevant psychological phenomena which can be discretely measured. Because of the requirements of the 1978 Federal Uniform Guidelines, the relationship between spirituality and job-related traits and characteristics need to be well understood in the event they are used for decisions affecting personnel . The merit of any metric associated with performance must be established through a validity study (Uniform Guidelines, Sec. 60-3.2 Scope. B… Show more

Spirituality provides descriptions that represent relevant psychological phenomena which can be discretely measured. Because of the requirements of the 1978 Federal Uniform Guidelines, the relationship between spirituality and job-related traits and characteristics need to be well understood in the event they are used for decisions affecting personnel . The merit of any metric associated with performance must be established through a validity study (Uniform Guidelines, Sec. 60-3.2 Scope. B, 2000). Accordingly, we consider the construct validity of the aforementioned measures in the context of the uniform guidelines. As hypothesized, religiosity and spirituality instruments are independent of measures commonly used for personnel selection purposes or measures of workplace deviance. We also establish the impact of gender on the measures and provide implications for recruitment and selection. Show less

Every day we wake up and start making judgments. How does your preference for hierarchy impact those judgments? For example, public opinion polls find most people support equality but see income distribution as being unfair in society. At the same time they see our economic system to be highly fair and legitimate. Stereotypes seem to help justify inequality in social systems by providing the reasons why some are at the top (intelligent, hardworking) and others aren't (lazy, irresponsible)… Show more

Every day we wake up and start making judgments. How does your preference for hierarchy impact those judgments? For example, public opinion polls find most people support equality but see income distribution as being unfair in society. At the same time they see our economic system to be highly fair and legitimate. Stereotypes seem to help justify inequality in social systems by providing the reasons why some are at the top (intelligent, hardworking) and others aren't (lazy, irresponsible). Ironically, dominant groups and the dominated seem to share the beliefs that justify the status differences (caste, socioeconomic status, or class hegemony) we see around us. As a small thought experiment - what comes to mind when you pass by that homeless encampment at the SF Civic Center? Show less

Economic turbulence seems normative in modern America. Our current workplace finds itself struggling on organizational, team and individual levels. The impact of financial insecurity, joblessness, short-term positions, downsizing and changing standards in technology and job skills can have significant financial, psychological, and social costs for organizations and their employees. Recent scholarship has established the positive effects of compassion at work, and we are beginning to realize the… Show more

Economic turbulence seems normative in modern America. Our current workplace finds itself struggling on organizational, team and individual levels. The impact of financial insecurity, joblessness, short-term positions, downsizing and changing standards in technology and job skills can have significant financial, psychological, and social costs for organizations and their employees. Recent scholarship has established the positive effects of compassion at work, and we are beginning to realize the impact it can have on organizational pain points. While it is difficult for individuals to control the external economic environment, giving employees tools to effectively increase their organizations psychosocial well-being is feasible. Show less

This criterion study examined the impact of the cultural dimensions of individualism and collectivism on actual plagiarism in working business students. Given globalization of business and recent business scandals, furthering our understanding of international ethics remains critical. Business students are the potential employees, managers and leaders of organizations in the future. In this study we focus on one form of unethical conduct by business students, i.e.actual plagiarism, and seek to… Show more

This criterion study examined the impact of the cultural dimensions of individualism and collectivism on actual plagiarism in working business students. Given globalization of business and recent business scandals, furthering our understanding of international ethics remains critical. Business students are the potential employees, managers and leaders of organizations in the future. In this study we focus on one form of unethical conduct by business students, i.e.actual plagiarism, and seek to determine the link between this behavior and cultural values of individualism/collectivism and associated stereotypes of Asian/Caucasian students. Our findings suggest that individualists plagiarize more than collectivists, and that no significant differences in plagiarism exist between Asian and Caucasian students, contrary to popular beliefs. The implications of these findings for scholars and managers are discussed. Show less

Business ethics have received increased attention from the media and academia in recent years. Most reports suggest that one form of unethical conduct - plagiarism - is on the rise in the business schools that develop our future managers and leaders. Stereotypes of Asian students as being more prone to plagiarize are frequently found in the literature, though not concretely substantiated. This study used a behavioral criterion to examine the relationships among ethnicity, acculturation, and… Show more

Business ethics have received increased attention from the media and academia in recent years. Most reports suggest that one form of unethical conduct - plagiarism - is on the rise in the business schools that develop our future managers and leaders. Stereotypes of Asian students as being more prone to plagiarize are frequently found in the literature, though not concretely substantiated. This study used a behavioral criterion to examine the relationships among ethnicity, acculturation, and plagiarism in a sample of 158 undergraduate and graduate students. Significant differences in plagiarism behavior were found based on level of student acculturation, but not ethnicity. Considerations and implications for training and managing international students and workers are discussed. Show less

Research regarding pay inequities between the sexes is well represented in the literature; however,internal compensation strategies and perceived labor pools (percentage of gender/minority applicants) have not been explored in depth. Three hundred eighty-one business students and 101 compensation specialists/managers participated in two experimental studies to establish the impact of perceived labor pools’ ethnicity and gender on compensable factor weighting. Results supported hypotheses that… Show more

Research regarding pay inequities between the sexes is well represented in the literature; however,internal compensation strategies and perceived labor pools (percentage of gender/minority applicants) have not been explored in depth. Three hundred eighty-one business students and 101 compensation specialists/managers participated in two experimental studies to establish the impact of perceived labor pools’ ethnicity and gender on compensable factor weighting. Results supported hypotheses that significant discriminatory weighing of compensable factors would be established (a) by the perceived ethnicity of the labor pool, (b) the perceived gender of the labor pool, and (c) participant gender. Implications and directions for future research are considered. Show less

Teaching MBA research methodology classes can be a challenge. Students lack previous exposure to research methodology and statistics, and do not recognize growing labor needs for knowledge workers that the courses offer. Given industry demand for students prepared for high complexity positions and the growing demand for business professors to produce high-quality research, this article presents the results of a project-based pedagogy for graduate MBA research methods course that has been used… Show more

Teaching MBA research methodology classes can be a challenge. Students lack previous exposure to research methodology and statistics, and do not recognize growing labor needs for knowledge workers that the courses offer. Given industry demand for students prepared for high complexity positions and the growing demand for business professors to produce high-quality research, this article presents the results of a project-based pedagogy for graduate MBA research methods course that has been used to meet four goals; 1) provide high-quality instruction of research methods and statistics, 2) production of high-quality academic publications that provide options for students and professors to present the research for professional conferences and publication, 3) offering students the ability to answer intrinsically relevant (and interesting) research questions, and 4) giving students the required software to execute future research projects. Show less

Purpose: Our research fulfills three purposes: 1) introduce practitioners to the appropriate use of measures of unethical behavior; 2) evaluate the use of integrity related assessments for use in personnel selection; and 3) determine the validity of the MCI instrument using standard validation procedures.

Methodology: Content, construct, convergent and discriminant approaches are applied to establish the relative validity of the assessment tool.

Findings: The results of the MCI… Show more

Purpose: Our research fulfills three purposes: 1) introduce practitioners to the appropriate use of measures of unethical behavior; 2) evaluate the use of integrity related assessments for use in personnel selection; and 3) determine the validity of the MCI instrument using standard validation procedures.

Methodology: Content, construct, convergent and discriminant approaches are applied to establish the relative validity of the assessment tool.

Findings: The results of the MCI purport to align with one’s moral values and behaviors. We establish face validity of the MCI measure, but fail to establish: 1) an appropriate simple factor structure, 2) convergent validity, 3) discriminant validity, and 4) support for the lack of impact of demographic factors on the purported measure of Moral intelligence.

Research limitations: An acceptable but constrained (working students) sample was used in the validation.

Practical implications: Researchers and practitioners should be familiar with psychometric principles to ensure the use of valid tools in a predictive and defensible manner. New measures can be developed, but should be validated before used for developmental or personnel decision making purposes.

Originality/value: 1) The lack of validity associated with the MCI instrument is established; 2) Researchers and practitioners are exposed to considerations in the appropriate use of measures of unethical behavior, and 3) exposed to several previously validated integrity related assessments for use in personnel decision making. Show less

Plagiarism is increasingly evident in business and academia. While links between demographic, personality, and situational factors have been found, previous research has not used actual plagiarism behavior as a criterion variable. Previous research on academic dishonesty has consistently used to self-report measures to establish prevalence of dishonest behavior. In this study we use actual plagiarism behavior to establish its prevalence, as well as relationships between integrity-related… Show more

Plagiarism is increasingly evident in business and academia. While links between demographic, personality, and situational factors have been found, previous research has not used actual plagiarism behavior as a criterion variable. Previous research on academic dishonesty has consistently used to self-report measures to establish prevalence of dishonest behavior. In this study we use actual plagiarism behavior to establish its prevalence, as well as relationships between integrity-related personal selection and workplace deviance measures. This research covers new ground in two respects: 1) That the academic dishonesty literature is subject to revision using criterion variables to avoid self bias and social desirability issues, 2) We establish the relationship between actual academic dishonesty and potential workplace deviance/white collar crime. Show less

Purpose - To validate the Unobtrusive Knowledge Test (UKT) in a minority population, and examine its potential for limiting stereotype threat.
Design/methodology/approach - Study One: (Convergent Validity): UKT and Wonderlic Personnel Test (WPT) scores were correlated for 116 minority students.
Study Two: (Stereotype Threat) 202 minority students were placed into one of four groups based on whether or not they were given instructions to elicit stereotype threat, and whether they took… Show more

Purpose - To validate the Unobtrusive Knowledge Test (UKT) in a minority population, and examine its potential for limiting stereotype threat.
Design/methodology/approach - Study One: (Convergent Validity): UKT and Wonderlic Personnel Test (WPT) scores were correlated for 116 minority students.
Study Two: (Stereotype Threat) 202 minority students were placed into one of four groups based on whether or not they were given instructions to elicit stereotype threat, and whether they took the Excellence scale of the UKT or the WPT.
Findings - Correlations provided evidence of convergent validity between the Excellence subscale of the UKT and the WPT. The stereotype threat study was inconclusive, with no differences being seen in the threat/non-threat conditions for the WPT, and higher scores in the threat condition than the non-threat condition for the UKT.
Research limitations/implications - Unreliability of some scales and low correlations of others with the WPT, lessened the overall UKT's convergent validity.
Practical implications - The need to develop measures of intelligence not subject to adverse impact is clear, and the results of the current research provide justification for further research establishing the properties of the UKT as a selection tool.
Originality/value - This paper offers new evidence of the usefulness of the UKT as a measure of cognitive ability for minority populations, and raises questions about the impact of stereotype threat on the UKT test. Show less

While employers recognize the utility, convenience, and efficiency of unproctored testing, implementing unproctored high-stakes tests(such as an Internet-administered intelligence test used for selection) face multiple hurdles. As the percentage of high-complexity jobs continue to increase in the United States, intelligence measures will continue to be in demand for personnel selection purposes. This study further established the validity of a general intelligence measure, the Unobtrusive… Show more

While employers recognize the utility, convenience, and efficiency of unproctored testing, implementing unproctored high-stakes tests(such as an Internet-administered intelligence test used for selection) face multiple hurdles. As the percentage of high-complexity jobs continue to increase in the United States, intelligence measures will continue to be in demand for personnel selection purposes. This study further established the validity of a general intelligence measure, the Unobtrusive Knowledge Test (UKT) in support of unproctored and Internet-based personnel employee selection. UKT performance was significantly correlated to an established personnel selection test, the Wonderlic Personnel Test (WPT), while being perceived as survey, though participants had been told otherwise. Implications are discussed. Show less

Researchers have rarely examined stressful environments and psychological characteristics as predictors of driving behavior in the same study. The authors hypothesized that (a) safer drivers more accurately assess physical and emotional traffic hazards and (b) stress and emotional states elevate crash risk. The hypotheses were evaluated with procedural and declarative tacit driving knowledge tests requiring assessment of emotional and contextual hazards and with accident reports describing… Show more

Researchers have rarely examined stressful environments and psychological characteristics as predictors of driving behavior in the same study. The authors hypothesized that (a) safer drivers more accurately assess physical and emotional traffic hazards and (b) stress and emotional states elevate crash risk. The hypotheses were evaluated with procedural and declarative tacit driving knowledge tests requiring assessment of emotional and contextual hazards and with accident reports describing crash antecedents,including stressful events and environmental conditions. Analyses identified separate driving knowledge factors corresponding to emotional and contextual hazards that were significantly related to the crash criteria. Accident report analyses show that stress significantly elevates at-fault crash risk. The results demonstrate the importance of experiential knowledge acquired without instruction (procedural or tacit knowledge) and provide safety recommendations. Show less

This study explored the use of influence techniques upon introduction of individuals to a conversional religion (The Church of Scientology). The researcher used the Participatory Research paradigm to investigate four aspects of influence (liking, social proof, authority and reciprocation, Cialdini, 1994) in an overriding Elaboration Likelihood Model (Petty, R., Cacioppo,J., 1986) framework. Findings supported hypothesis of use of influence techniques for the financial benefit of the… Show more

This study explored the use of influence techniques upon introduction of individuals to a conversional religion (The Church of Scientology). The researcher used the Participatory Research paradigm to investigate four aspects of influence (liking, social proof, authority and reciprocation, Cialdini, 1994) in an overriding Elaboration Likelihood Model (Petty, R., Cacioppo,J., 1986) framework. Findings supported hypothesis of use of influence techniques for the financial benefit of the organization. The implications of these findings for the future studies of influence were discussed. Show less

Five knowledge tests and one implicit-reasoning task were developed to be: (1) exceptionally short, (2) correlated with general cognitive aptitude, (3) unobtrusive, i.e., appear similar to attitudinal survey items as opposed to maximal performance measures, and (4) without formally``correct'' answers. The intent was to design scales that could be administered in non-proctored environments to directly measure general cognitive aptitude while avoiding the possibility that participants could use… Show more

Five knowledge tests and one implicit-reasoning task were developed to be: (1) exceptionally short, (2) correlated with general cognitive aptitude, (3) unobtrusive, i.e., appear similar to attitudinal survey items as opposed to maximal performance measures, and (4) without formally``correct'' answers. The intent was to design scales that could be administered in non-proctored environments to directly measure general cognitive aptitude while avoiding the possibility that participants could use references to provide ``good'' answers. The five knowledge tests used a Likert format to assess knowledge in verbal and practical domains, and were scored by computingdistances between examinee and reference ratings. The implicit-reasoning task appeared to be a series completion ``game'' that required a dichotomous response. The scales were administered to 288 Air Force recruits and were validated against the Armed Services Vocational Aptitude Battery(ASVAB). Individual unobtrusive knowledge scales and ASVAB tests were substantially correlated with sample correlations ranging to .39 and population correlation estimates to .66 after correcting for range restriction. Two sets of factor scores, which were separately derived from the unobtrusive test battery and the ASVAB, were highly correlated in our sample, .54, yielding a population correlation of .80 after correcting for range restriction. This technology is important because few paper- or Internet-based surveys, and virtually no mail-based surveys accurately measure general cognitive aptitude, while many of these surveys address important social issues and commercial questions that could be better understood given an unobtrusive but accurate estimate of general cognitive aptitude. Show less

In 1987,data were collected on 2,731 young men and their parents as part of the Army Communications Objectives Measurement System (ACOMS) survey to understand factors associated with military enlistment and to evaluate military advertising. The ACOMS data are unique because parents and children are linked, which allows re-searchers to analyze the influence of parental attitudes and behaviors on the… Show more

In 1987,data were collected on 2,731 young men and their parents as part of the Army Communications Objectives Measurement System (ACOMS) survey to understand factors associated with military enlistment and to evaluate military advertising. The ACOMS data are unique because parents and children are linked, which allows re-searchers to analyze the influence of parental attitudes and behaviors on the enlist-mentdecisionindependentlyofyouthreportsoftheirparents’attitudes.Resultsindi-catethattheyouths’perceptionsofparentalattitudestowardthemilitaryandreportedparental attitudes correlate at a low level (.14 to .22) showing that youth perceptions of parental attitudes cannot function as a proxy for actual parental attitudes. This may reflect a failure of parents to communicate clearly their attitudes or a failure of children to interpret them accurately. Results also indicate that (a) youth perceptions of parental attitudes predict stated enlistment propensity, which predicts military enlistment,and (b) reported parental attitudes predict military enlistment independently of youth-stated enlistment propensity. The analyses suggest that military enlistment might be enhanced through (a) fostering youth perceptions that competent parents have positive views of the military,(b) fostering positive parental attitudes by educating parents about military benefits and lifestyle, (c) using reports of positive parental attitudes as an indicator of their child’s positive military enlistment propensity, and(d) actively involving parents in the enlistment process. Show less